A prospective study was carried out on patients with diabetic foot lesions to determine their clinical characteristics, the spectrum of aerobic microbial flora and to assess their comparative in vitro susceptibility to the commonly used antibiotics. A total of 157 organisms (143 bacteria and 14 fungi) were isolated and an average of 1.52 isolates per case was reported. Polymicrobial infection was found in 35% of the patients. In this study, Pseudomonas aeruginosa among the gram-negative (22%) and Staphylococcus aureus among the gram-positive (19%) were the predominantly isolated organisms, while Candida was the most predominantly isolated fungus. Antimicrobial sensitivity pattern of the isolates is discussed in detail. There was a linear increase in the prevalence of organisms with increase in Wagner's grade. Neuropathy (76%) and peripheral vascular disease (57.28%) was a common feature among the patients. Poor glycemic control was found in 67% of the patients. Awareness about lower limb complications of diabetes was very low (23%) among the patients

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Background: Fungi are being increasingly implicated in the etiopathology of rhinosinusitis. Fungal sinusitis is frequently seen in diabetic or immunocompromised patients, although it has also been reported in immunocompetent individuals. Invasive fungal sinusitis, unless diagnosed early and treated aggressively, has a high mortality rate. Aim: Our aim was to look at the mycological and clinical aspects of fungal sinusitis in a tertiary referral center in Tamil Nadu. Design: This is a retrospective audit conducted on fungal culture positive sinus samples submitted to the Microbiology department from January 2000 to August 2007. Relevant clinical and histopathological details were analysed. Results: A total of 211 culture-positive fungal sinusitis samples were analysed. Of these, 63% had allergic fungal sinusitis and 34% had invasive fungal sinusitis. Aspergillus flavus was the most common causative agent of allergic fungal sinusitis and Rhizopus arrhizus was the most common causative agent of acute invasive sinusitis. A significant proportion of these patients did not have any known predisposing factors. Conclusion: In our study, the etiology of fungal sinusitis was different than that of western countries. Allergic fungal sinusitis was the most common type of fungal sinusitis in our community. Aspergillus sp was the most common causative agent in both allergic and chronic invasive forms of the disease.

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Context: Lifestyle factors, like alcohol intake and cigarette smoking, have been reported to affect male fertility. Aims: To find out the specific impact of alcohol and smoking on semen quality of male partners of couples seeking treatment for primary infertility. Materials and Methods: From the semen samples analyzed in our andrology laboratory, results of 100 alcoholics and 100 cigarette smoker males were studied following WHO guidelines and compared with 100 strict nonalcoholic and nonsmoker males for presence of asthenozoospermia, oligozoospermia and teratozoospermia. Statistical Analysis: Data was analyzed by F- test using Microsoft Office Excel 2003. Results: Only 12% alcoholics and six per cent smokers showed normozoospermia compared to 37 % nonalcoholic nonsmoker males. Teratozoospermia, followed by oligozoospermia dominated alcoholics. Overall impact of asthenozoospermia and teratozoospermia, but not of oligozoospermia, was observed in smokers. Light smokers predominantly showed asthenozoospermia. Heavy alcoholics and smokers showed asthenozoospermia, teratozoospermia as well as oligozoospermia. Conclusions: Asthenozoospermia, the most common semen variable in our study, can be an early indicator of reduction in quality of semen. Alcohol abuse apparently targets sperm morphology and sperm production. Smoke-induced toxins primarily hamper sperm motility and seminal fluid quality. Progressive deterioration in semen quality is related to increasing quantity of alcohol intake and cigarettes smoked.

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Blood transfusion is an important mode of transmission of infections to recipients. The aim of the study was to assess the prevalence of transfusion-transmissible infections among blood donors. For this, a 3.5-year retrospective study, from October 2002 to April 2006 was conducted at the blood transfusion centre of Maharaja Agrasen Medical College, Agroha (Hisar) Haryana. Donors were screened for seroprevalence of HIV, HBV, HCV and syphilis. A total of 5849 donors were tested, out of which 4010 (68.6%) were replacement donors and 1839 (31.4%) were voluntary donors. The seroprevalence of HIV was 0.3% in the donors. No voluntary donor was found to be positive for HIV. The low sero-positivity among donors is attributed to pre-donation counseling in donor selection. The seroprevalence of HBV, HCV and syphilis was 1.7%, 1.0% and 0.9% respectively in total donors. The seroprevalence of hepatitis and syphilis was more in replacement donors as compared to voluntary donors.

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Background / Aims: The eye may be infected from external sources or through intra-ocular invasion of micro-organisms carried by the blood stream. This study was undertaken to isolate and identify the specific bacterial pathogens causing ocular infections and to determine their in-vitro antibacterial susceptibilities to commonly used antibacterial agents. Materials and Methods: A retrospective analysis of all patients with clinically diagnosed bacterial ocular infections such as blepharitis, conjunctivitis, internal and external hordeolum, suppurative scleritis, canaliculitis, keratitis, dacryocystitis, preseptal cellulitis, endophthalmitis and panophthalmitis presenting between January 2005 and December 2005 was performed. Extra-ocular and intra-ocular specimens were collected and were subjected to direct microscopy and culture. Results: A total of 756 patients with bacterial ocular infections were analyzed, of which 462(61%) eyes had adnexal bacterial infection, 217(28.7%) had corneal infection, 6 (0.8%) had scleral involvement and the remaining 71(9.39%) eyes had infection of the intra-ocular tissues. The predominant bacterial species isolated was S. aureus (195 of 776; 25%) followed by S. pneumoniae (169 of 776; 21.78%) and coagulase negative staphylococci (142 of 776; 18.3%). The largest number of gram-positive isolates were susceptible to cefazolin (545 of 624; 87.34%), chloramphenicol (522 of 624; 83.65%) and gatifloxacin (511 of 624; 81.89%) and gram-negative isolates were to amikacin (127 of 136; 93.38%), gatifloxacin (125 of 136; 91.91%) and ofloxacin (119 of 136; 87.5%), while aerobic actinomycetes were to amikacin (100%), gatifloxacin (14 of 16; 87.5%), chloramphenicol (14 of 16; 87.5%) and ofloxacin (13 of 16; 81.25%). Conclusions: S. aureus frequently causes infections of eyelids and conjunctiva, S. pneumoniae of lacrimal apparatus and cornea and coagulase negative staphylococci causes intra-ocular infections. Of all routinely used antibacterials tested, flouroquinolones, especially gatifloxacin and ofloxacin represented a good choice for treating bacterial ocular infections.

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Drug resistance is the major cause of increase in morbidity and mortality in neonates. One thousand six hundred forty-seven suspected septicemic neonates were subjected for microbiological analysis over a period of 5 years. Forty-two P. aeruginosa were isolated and the antibiogram revealed that 28 P. aeruginosa were resistant to almost all the common drugs used (multidrug-resistant). The emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains is one of the most critical problems of modern medicine. As a result, a novel and most effective approaches for treating infection caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria are urgently required. In this context, one intriguing approach is to use bacteriophages (viruses that kill bacteria) in the treatment of infection caused by drug-resistant bacteria. In the present study, the utility of lytic bacteriophages to rescue septicemic mice with multidrug-resistant (MDR) P. aeruginosa infection was evaluated. MDR P. aeruginosa was used to induce septicemia in mice by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of 10 ⁷ CFU. The resulting bacteremia was fatal within 48 hrs. The phage strain used in this study had lytic activity against a wide range of clinical isolates of MDR P. aeruginosa. A single i.p. injection of 3 × 10 ⁹ PFU of the phage strain, administered 45 min after the bacterial challenge, was sufficient to rescue 100% of the animals. Even when treatment was delayed to the point where all animals were moribund, approximately 50% of them were rescued by a single injection of this phage preparation. The ability of this phage to rescue septicemic mice was demonstrated to be due to the functional capabilities of the phage and not to a nonspecific immune effect. The rescue of septicemic mice could be affected only by phage strains able to grow in vitro on the bacterial host used to infect the animals and when such strains are heat-inactivated, they lose their ability to rescue the infected mice. Multidrug-resistant bacteria have opened a second window for phage therapy. It would seem timely to begin to look afresh at this approach. A scientific methodology can make phage therapy as a stand-alone therapy for infections that are fully resistant to antibiotics.

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Aims: This study aims to establish biological reference interval for novel platelet parameters. Settings and Design: A total of 945 healthy individuals, age ranges from 18 to 64 years (881 males and 64 females) coming for voluntary blood donation from June to August 2012 (3 months) were enrolled after exclusion of rejection criteria. Materials and Methods: The samples were assayed by running in complete blood count + reticulocyte mode on the Sysmex XE-2100 hematology analyzer and the reference interval for the population was calculated using Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. Statistical analysis used: Tests were performed using SPSS (Statistical Product and Service Solutions , developed by IBM corporation), version 13. Student t test and pearsons correlation analysis were also used. Results: The normal range for various parameters was platelet count: 150-520 × 10 ³ /cu mm, immature platelet fraction (IPF): 0.3-8.7%, platelet distribution width (PDW): 8.3-25.0 fL, mean platelet volume (MPV): 8.6-15.5 fL, plateletcrit (PCT): 0.15-0.62%, high immature platelet fraction (H-IPF): 0.1-2.7%, platelet large cell ratio (P-LCR): 11.9-66.9% and platelet-X (PLT-X) (ch): 11.0-22.0. Negative correlation was observed between platelet count (r = −0.468 to r = −0.531; P < 0.001) and PCT (r = −0.080 to r = −0.235; P < 0.05 to P < 0.001) with IPF, PDW, MPV, H-IPF, P-LCR, and platelet-X. IPF/H-IPF showed a positive correlation among them and also with PDW, MPV, P-LCR, platelet-X (r = +0.662 to r = +0.925; P < 0.001). Conclusions: These novel platelet parameters offer newer avenues in research and clinical use. Establishing biological reference interval for different platelet parameters would help determine true high and low values and help guide treatment decisions.

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To find out the prevalence and epidemiological features of keratomycosis in Chandigarh, the present study was carried out jointly by the Departments of Microbiology and Ophthalmology, Government Medical College Hospital, Chandigarh, over a period of 5 years from January 1999 to December 2003. Corneal scrapings were collected from a total of 154 suspected patients of keratomycosis and were processed and identified by standard laboratory techniques. The study revealed that a total of 64 cases (41.55%) were positive for fungal agents. Direct microscopy was positive in 52 cases (76.47%) and culture in 34 cases (53.12%). Most common fungal isolates were Aspergillus species 14 (41.18%), Fusarium species 8 (23.53%), Candida species 3 (8.82%), Curvularia species 2 (5.88%) and Bipolaris species 2 (5.88%). Thus, hyaline filamentous fungi were the most common etiological agents and mechanical trauma with vegetative matter was the most common predisposing factor. Males in age group of 21-50 years were more commonly affected

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Background: Inherited abnormalities of hemoglobin synthesis include a myriad of disorders ranging from thalassemia syndromes to structurally abnormal hemoglobin variants. Identification of these disorders is immensely important epidemiologically and aid in prevention of more serious hemoglobin disorders. Aims: High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) forms an important tool for accurate and speedy diagnosis of various hemoglobin disorders. About 2600 cases have been studied for identification of various hemoglobin disorders in Indian population. Material and Methods: The study was performed on BIORAD VARIANT using beta thalassemia short program. Results and conclusion: Abnormal hemoglobin fractions on HPLC were seen in 327 of the 2,600 cases displayed. Of this, the beta thalassemia trait was the predominant abnormality with a total of 232 cases (8.9%). There were 15(0.6%) cases of beta thalassemia major and 16 of thalassemia intermedia. The rest comprised of Hb D Punjab (13 cases; 0.5%), Elevated Hb F (25 cases; 0.9%), Hb E (seven cases including two Hb E homozygous and five Hb E heterozygous), Double heterozygous Hb E-beta thal trait (six cases), Hb Q India (five cases), Double heterozygous Hb Q India -beta thal trait (two cases), Hb S (total cases three including one Hb S homozygous; two Hb S -beta thal trait) and one case each of Hb J Meerut, Hb D-Iran and Hb Lepore trait. Detection of this abnormal hemoglobin, particularly keeping in mind a high prevalence of Hb A2, will help in prevention of more serious hemoglobinopathies including beta thalassemia major. HPLC forms a rapid and accurate tool in early detection and management of various hemoglobin disorders.

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Normal aging of the nervous system is associated with some degree of decline in a number of cognitive functions. With the present day attempts to increase the life span, understanding the metabolic interactions and various mechanisms involved in normal neuronal aging continues to be a challenge. Loss of neurons is now recognized to be more modest than the initial estimates suggested and the loss only affected some of the specific neuroanatomical areas like hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Individual neurons in addition show reduced size of dendritic and axonal arborization. Neurons have significant homeostatic control of the essential physiological functions like synaptic excitability, gene expression and metabolic regulation. Deviation in these normal events can have severe consequences as observed in aging and neurodegeneration. Based on experimental evidence, the evolution of aging is probably the result of altered metabolic triad: the mitochondria, reactive oxygen species and intracellular calcium homeostasis. Perturbations in the metabolic and functional state of this triad lead to a state of decreased homeostatic reserve, where the aged neurons still could maintain adequate function during normal activity. However, these neurons become vulnerable to the stress of excessive metabolic loads associated with spells of ischemia, trauma progressing to neuronal degeneration. Age-related neuronal dysfunction probably involves a host of subtle changes involving the synapses, receptors, neurotransmitters, cytological alterations, electrical transmission, leading to cognitive dysfunction. An exaggeration of it could be the clinical manifestation of dementia, with intraneuronal accumulation of protein aggregates deranging the metabolic state. This review deals with some of the structural, functional and metabolic features of aging nervous system and discusses briefly the functional consequences.

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A 5 year retrospective study from June, 1994 to May, 1999 was conducted at Zonal Blood Transfusion Centre, Umaid Hospital and Department of Pathology, Dr. SN Medical College and Associated Group of Hospitals, Jodhpur (Rajastha, Western India. Donors were evaluated for seroprevalence of HIV, HBV, HCV and Syphilis. A Total 46,957 donors were tested, out of which 42,291 (90.1%) were replacement donors and 4666 (9.0%) were voluntary donors. The incidence of HIV was 0.44% in total donors, more in replacement (0.461%) as compare to voluntary (0.279%). The seroprevalence of HBV in total donor was 3.44%. The replacement donors had high incidence (3.52%) as compared to voluntary donors (2.57%). The incidence of HCV seropositivity was 0.285% (5 month data), all were replacement donors (0.328%). The seroprevalence of VDRL in total donor was 0.22%, more in replacement donor (0.239%) as compare to voluntary donors (0.129%). Hence forth, it has been observed that voluntary blood donation is more safe and advocated as compare to replacement donation, as high incidence of HIV, HBV, HCV and Syphilis are observed in replacement donors.

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Tuberculous involvement of liver as a part of disseminated tuberculosis is seen in up to 50-80% cases, but localized hepatobiliary tuberculosis (HBTB) is uncommonly described. During 6 years, a total of 280 consecutive patients with TB were evaluated prospectively for the presence and etiology of liver involvement. Cases with miliary TB or immunosuppression and cases receiving anti-tuberculosis drugs prior to presentation to our unit were excluded (38 cases). Details of clinical, biochemical and imaging findings and histology/microbiology were noted. Of 242 included cases, 38 patients (15.7%; age 38.1 ± 12.5 years; sex ratio 2.5:1) had HBTB, whereas 20 patients (9%; age 39.3 ± 16.3 years; sex ratio 2.1:1) had other liver diseases. Diagnosis of HBTB was based on caseating granuloma on histology (18/23 procedures), positive smear/culture for acid-fast bacilli (21/39 procedures) and positive polymerase chain reaction for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (28/29 procedures) when diagnostic procedures were guided by imaging results. Thirty-eight cases with HBTB were classified as follows [patients (n), (%)]: (A) hepatic TB [20 (52.6%)]: (1) granulomatous hepatitis - 10 (26.3%), (2) liver abscesses or pseudotumors - 10 (26.3%) and (3) calcified hepatic granuloma - 0 (0%); (B) biliary TB [15 (39.4%)]: (1) biliary strictures - 2 (5.2%), (2) gall bladder involvement - 1 (2.6%) and (3) biliary obstruction due to lymph node masses - 12 (31.5%); (C) mixed variety [3 (7.8%)]: (1) simultaneous granulomatous hepatitis and biliary stricture - 1 (2.6%) and (2) simultaneous lymph node involvement and calcified hepatic granuloma - 2 (5.2%). All the cases responded well to standard anti-tuberculosis therapy. HBTB forms an important subgroup in TB cases. It requires a combination of imaging, histological and microbiological procedures to define the diagnosis. HBTB responds well to treatment.

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This study was carried out to observe the trend in hormone receptors over the last 8 years in a tertiary cancer center in India. A total of 11,780 tumors analyzed for hormone receptors over the last 7 years were compared with the results of hormone receptor expression in a prior published study on 798 cases of breast cancer from the same institute. The patient's ages ranged from 18 to 102 years, Sixty percent of the patients were in the age group of 31-50 years. Seventy percent of the tumors were grade III tumors. The percentage of hormone receptor expression in breast cancer in the last 8 years varied from 52 to 57%. The overall receptor expression in the last 8 years shifted within a 5% range, confirming that the hormone receptor expression in Indian patients with breast cancer is low. However, there was redistribution within the pattern of estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) expression among tumors showing hormone receptor expression. Breast cancers showing only PR expression reduced dramatically from 21% in the year 1999 to in the year 2006, with a parallel increase in breast cancers showing combined ER and PR positivity (from 25 to 41.8%) and only ER expression (from 7.4 to 10.6%). The hormone receptor expression in breast cancers in India is and continues to be low but the high incidence of only PR-positive tumors in our population reported earlier was misrepresented.

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Studies from developed countries have reported that extra-pulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) is on the rise due to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic. However, similar studies from high-burden countries with low prevalence of HIV like Saudi Arabia are lacking. Therefore, we conducted this study to investigate demographic and clinical characteristics of patients with pulmonary and extra-pulmonary tuberculosis. A retrospective analysis was carried out on all patients (n=431) with a culture - proven diagnosis of tuberculosis seen at University teaching hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia from January 2001 to December 2007. A total of 183 (42.5%) pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) and 248 (57.5%) extra-pulmonary TB (EPTB) cases were compared in terms of age, sex, and nationality. There were 372 Saudis (SA) (86.3%) and the remaining non-Saudis (NSA) 59 (13.7%). The age distribution of the PTB patients had a bimodal distribution. EPTB was more common at young age (20-29 years). The proportion of EPTB cases was significantly higher among NSA patients (72.9%) compared to SA patients (55.1%). Females had higher proportion (59.5%) of EPTB than males (55.6%). The most common site was lymph node tuberculosis (42%). In conclusion, our data suggest that EPTB was relatively common in younger age, female gender and NSA. Tuberculosis (TB) control program may target those populations for EPTB case-finding.

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Objectives: Urinary tract infection (UTI) as a result of Candida spp. is becoming increasingly common in hospitalized setting. Clinicians face dilemma in differentiating colonization from true infection and whether to treat candiduria or not. The objective of the present study was to look into the significance of candiduria in catheterized patients admitted in the ICUs and perform microbiological characterization of yeasts to guide treatment protocols. Materials and Methods: One hundred consecutive isolates of Candida spp. from the urine sample of 70 catheterized patients admitted in the ICU were collected and stocked for further characterization. A proforma was maintained containing demographic and clinical details. Blood cultures were obtained from all these 70 patients and processed. Species identification of yeasts was done on VITEK. Results: Candiduria was more common at extremes of age. The mean duration of catheter days was 11.1 ± 6 days. Other associated risk factors such as diabetes mellitus and antibiotic usage were seen in 38% and 100% of our study group. Concomitant candidemia was seen in 4.3% of cases. Non-albicans Candida spp. (71.4%) emerged as the predominant pathogen causing nosocomial UTI. Conclusion: The present study reiterates the presence of candiduria in catheterized patients, especially in the presence of diabetes and antibiotic usage. Non-albicans Candida spp. are replacing Candida albicans as the predominant pathogen for nosocomial UTI. Hence, we believe that surveillance for nosocomial candiduria should be carried out in hospitalized patients.

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Background and Aims: Hepatic steatosis (HS) is highly prevalent in chronic hepatitis C and is an important variable predicting progression of histological injury, insulin resistance, and reduced response to antiviral therapy. There are limited data on HS in patients with chronic hepatitis B (CHB). This is relevant since response to current antiviral therapies for CHB is rather limited. We investigated the spectrum and predictors of HS in CHB patients. Materials and Methods: Liver biopsies of consecutive patients of chronic Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infection were studied and were categorized as: Group I - hepatosteatosis (>5%) and Group II - no steatosis (£5%). Anthropometric, histological, biochemical, virological, and metabolic determinants were compared. Logistic regression analysis was applied to identify variables that were independently associated with the presence of steatosis. Results: Of the 350 patients, 118 (33.7%) liver biopsies showed steatosis (Group I); 65 (55.1%) had mild (6 to <25%) and 53 (44.9%) had moderate to severe steatosis (³25%). Patients in group I, compared with group II, were older (35.5 ± 10.5 vs 27.9 ± 14.0 years, P < 0.01), predominantly male (M: F, 10.8: 1 vs 4.8: 1, P = 0.035), obese (75.0% vs 23.4%, P < 0.01), with higher body mass index (25.2 ± 4.8 vs 20.4 ± 3.5, P < 0.01), with higher triglycerides (138.8 ± 62.1 vs 88.0 ± 27.9, P = 0.02), with higher cholesterol (171.9 ± 43.5 vs 139.3 ± 37.6, P = 0.017), and with higher serum insulin (13.1 ± 9.1 vs 9.1 ± 6.0, P < .027) levels. HBV DNA level was significantly lower in group I than group II; however, HBV genotype did not influence HS. By multivariate regression analysis, only high serum triglyceride level was independent parameter associated with HS. Conclusions: Steatosis is seen in one-third cases with HBV-related chronic liver disease and is associated with host metabolic factors, especially serum triglyceride levels, whereas HBV DNA level negatively correlated with HS.

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Dirofilaria is a parasite of domestic and wild animals that can infect humans accidentally. It is being reported in increasing numbers from Mediterranean countries like Italy. In India this infection is occasionally being reported. We report three cases of ocular dirofilariasis from the state of Assam presenting as periorbital and subconjunctival cysts. The parasites were identified as Dirofilaria repens. The purpose of this article is to take note of this emerging zoonosis in Assam; also to review literature in the cases reported.

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Introduction: Enterococci rank among leading causes of nosocomial bacteremia, urinary tract infections and community acquired endocarditis. The aim of the present study was to investigate the presence of virulence factors in Enterococci strains isolated from clinical samples in Iranian Educational hospitals. Methodology: Presence of aggregation substance (asa), extracellular surface protein (esp), Enterococcus faecalis antigen A (efaA), adhesin of collagen from E. faecalis (ace), endocarditis and biofilm-associated pilli (ebp) as colonization factors and cytolysin (cyl), gelatinase (gel) and hyaloronidase (hyl) as secretary factors were investigated in isolates. A total of 201 clinical isolates of Enterococci were collected in 2009-2010 from eight educational hospitals. After deoxyribonucleic acid extraction, they were examined for presence of virulence factors by polymerase chain reaction. Results: E. faecalis and Enterococcus faecium were isolated from 56.9% to 43.1%, respectively. Resistance to vancomycin and gentamicin were 33.8% and 83.9% in E. faecium isolates and 16.3% and 88.1% in E. faecalis isolates respectively. Colonization factors were found to be more prevalent in E. faecalis isolates and almost all isolates of E. faecalis had ace, ebp and efaA genes. Esp gene had a higher rate of distribution in Enterococci isolates (75.1%) in this study compared with previous studies. One of E. faecalis isolates contained hyl gene, but 38.8% of E. faecium isolates had it. Mutual exclusive were present between hyl and efaA in all E. faecium isolates and 69.7% of E. faecium hyl - positive isolates were esp positive. Conclusion: According to these results, virulence genes were more prevalent in E. faecalis isolates and E. faecalis had more potential pathogenesis for initiating an infection; however because of E. faeciums higher antibiotic resistance, we have been facing higher E. faecium infections in hospitalized patients.

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Background: Surgical site infection (SSI) is one of the most common postoperative complication and causes significant postoperative morbidity and mortality. Patients: A prospective study was carried out in a total of 100 patients operated for clean and clean-contaminated surgeries from department of orthopedics, surgery and obstetrics & gynecology. Materials and Methods: Relevant details were noted in clinical history. Each patient was followed from the time of admission till discharge from the hospital and also for 30 days postoperatively (CDC, 1999). The identification of the infecting organism was done by staining, and culture and antibiotic susceptibility by Disc Diffusion method. Results: Out of 100 patients, 32 patients got infected post-operatively. Staphylococcus aureus was the most common organism isolated. None of the strains were Methicillin resistant. Drug resistance was widespread, especially in Enterobacteriaceae, where the Cefotaxime resistant strains of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were ESBL producing. Another concern in recent times is the isolation of Acinetobacter from surgical wounds. Various patient factors and hospital protocol were analyzed with regard to the treatment outcome. Judicious use of antibiotics along with evidence-based medicine is the need of the hour to stop the rise of these superbugs.

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HCV isolates from around the world show substantial nucleotide sequence variability throughout the viral genome. Based on the identification of these genome differences various genotypes and subtypes have been described from different geographical regions. They have been tentatively classified into six major genotypes and more than 30 subtypes, but new subtypes are continually being discovered. In recent years, substantial evidence has emerged indicating that typing and subtyping for HCV is clinically important. The present study aims at determining and comparing the prevalence of different genotypes from different parts of India (North, South, East and West). A total of 153 samples representing different regions have been genotyped in our lab. Our studies document a high prevalence of genotype 3 (> 76%) and very low prevalence of genotype 2 (< 2%), as a whole. However, genotype 3a has been found to be the highest (50%) with a decreased frequency of approximately 25% in the case of 3b, approximately 14% in 1b and approximately 10% in 1a, whereas a minimal number (approximately 4%) of genotype 4 has been found only in Southern and Western India.

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Aims: Diabetic foot lesions are a major medical, social, and economic problem and are the leading cause of hospitalization for patients with diabetes, worldwide. ESBL-producing bacteria may not be detectable by routine disc diffusion susceptibility test, leading to inappropriate use of antibiotics and treatment failure. There is not much information on ESBL-producing organisms causing diabetic foot infection. An attempt was therefore made to study the ESBL-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae in diabetic foot patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Materials and Methods: A total of 134 isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae were obtained from tissue, pus swab, and wound swab samples from diabetic foot ulcers submitted for routine microbiological analysis during the period January to December 2005 from patients with diabetic foot infections who had type 2 diabetes mellitus, attending S. L. Raheja Hospital. The above isolates were tested for antimicrobial susceptibility by disc diffusion technique according to clinical and laboratory standards institute (CLSI) guidelines. The screening for ESBL production was done by phenotypic confirmatory test using ceftazidime disc in the presence and absence of clavulanic acid as recommended by CLSI. Results: Among the 134 isolates, 54 (40.29%) were E. coli and 80 (59.70%) were K. pneumoniae; among which, ESBL production was detected in 31 (23.13%) isolates. Of these 31, 15 (48.38%) were E. coli and 16 (51.61%) were K. pneumoniae. All the ESBL-producing isolates were found to be 100% sensitive to carbapenem (imipenem and meropenem). Mortality was found to be 3.22%, the cause of death being septicemia leading to multiple organ failure. Conclusions: The prevalence of ESBLs among members of Enterobacteriaceae constitutes a serious threat to the current beta-lactam therapy, leading to treatment failure and consequent escalation of costs. There is an urgent need to emphasize rational use of drugs to minimize the misuse of available antimicrobials.

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Primary sinonasal tumors with neuroendocrine differentiation (SCND) are uncommon tumors with considerable overlap of histological features. Based on their neuroendocrine differentiation they can be sub categorized into sinonasal undifferentiated carcinoma (SNUC), sinonasal neuroendocrine carcinoma (SNEC), esthesioneuroblastoma (ENB) and small cell carcinoma (SmCC). The natural history and biological behavior varies in this group of tumors. Hence the histo-morphological diagnosis coupled with grading/staging is important for the prognostication of these tumors. Aim : To study the clinicopathological characteristics of sinonasal neuroendocrine malignancies at our institute. Material and Methods : We searched our institute's pathology database for the period from 2002 to 2007, for the four subcategories of sinonasal tumors with neuroendocrine differentiation. Morphological and immunohistochemical features were studied and, grading, staging was done in accordance with standard criteria. The clinical treatment and follow- up data were retrieved from the case files in available cases. Results : A total of 37 cases were retrieved from our database which include 14 cases of SNUC, 14 cases of ENB and nine cases of SNEC. The cases of SNUC were immunopositive for cytokeratin, epithelial membrane antigen and weakly for neuron-specific enolase. SNEC showed strong reactivity with epithelial and neuroendocrine markers whereas ENB demonstrated immunoreactivity to synaptophysisn and chromogranin strongly, with weak to negative expression of epithelial markers. All cases of SNUC and SNEC were of high grade and stage whereas 50% of ENB cases were of grade II but high stage tumors. Most of the SNUC and SNEC patients had been treated with multimodality treatment regimens including upfront chemotherapy followed by surgery and loco- regional radiation. In contrast, ENB patients had undergone surgical extirpation followed by radiation therapy in majority of cases. With limited follow-up data, it was observed that four out of five SNUC patients and three out of four SNEC patients developed either loco-regional (three of SNUC and two of SNEC) or distant metastasis (one patient each of SNUC and SNEC). ENB patients also had loco-regional recurrences (five out of seven patients) with a more protracted course but no distant metastases were observed during the follow up in available cases. Conclusion : Sino nasal tumors with neuroendocrine differentiation are a heterogenous group of tumors with overlapping histo-morphological features. They can be distinguished based on immunohistochemical characteristics. Pathological sub categorization is imperative for management and prognostication of these aggressive tumors.

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Changing pattern of dermatophytic infection among people of Sikkim over the past few years and its recurrence rate has brought a need to do a study on clinical pattern and its recurrence from this part of the country. The objectives of this study are to discern the clinical patterns of dermatophytosis, identification of the isolated fungi to its species level and to see the pattern of its recurrence. The study was carried out from January 2015 to May 2016. A total of 192 samples were collected from the patients with clinical findings of dermatophytic infection. Required history of the patients was taken, followed by clinical examination of the lesions and sample collection. The samples were processed for mycological study till species identification and a follow up of patients were done to assess its recurrence pattern. The age distribution of the patients was from 2 to 80 years. The mean and median age was 30.33 and 33 years respectively. The male female ratio was 1.8:1. Dermatophytosis was noted more commonly in students (n = 64, 33.33%) and jawans (n = 44, 22.92%). Maximum occurrence was noted from April to July (n = 106, 55.20%) and was seen mainly in young Hindu males. Tinea corporis (n = 104, 54.16%) was the most common clinical manifestation followed by tinea unguium (n = 30, 15.63%). T. mentagrophyte (40%) was the most common species followed by T. schoenleinii (33.3%), T. tonsurans (16.6%) and T. rubrum (6.6%). The recurrence rate was seen most commonly in clinical cases of tinea faciei 100%, followed by tinea pedis 80% and tinea unguium 46.6%. Overall clinical cure rate was 58.3% and recurrence rate was 34.3%. In the isolated species of dermatophytes, the recurrence rate was 73.68% and that of non-dermatophytes it was 28.07%. Dermatophytosis is an important health problem with high recurrence in Sikkim with difference in the etiological agent from other parts of India.

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We studied a series of untreated laryngeal carcinomas in an attempt to determine the relationship between Ki67 and p53 expression and clinicopathological findings. The relationship between expression of these markers in non-tumoral tissue was also evaluated in order to investigate the possible role of immunohistochemistry as a diagnostic aid in evaluating laryngeal biopsies. Materials and Methods: Samples from 54 patients with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) were analyzed retrospectively. The uninvolved vocal cord was evaluated as a non-tumoral sample. Paraffin sections of tumors were immunohistochemically stained for p53 and Ki67 expression. Results: Overall, p53 expression was found in 35 (64.8%) of the patients. There was a significant correlation among tumoral p53 expression and tumor location, tumor stage and lymph node involvement. Most grade I tumors had a Ki67 labeling index <50% and a labeling index ≥50 was found mainly in high-grade tumors. Tumoral Ki67 expression correlated significantly with tumor grade and mitotic count. There was no correlation between Ki67 labeling index and tumor region. In non-tumoral tissue, 95% of high-grade pre-neoplastic lesions revealed a high expression of Ki67. Non-tumoral p53 expression did not correlate with histological findings. Conclusion: p53 and Ki67 expression in tumoral tissue may be a prognostic marker in patients with laryngeal SCC. Evaluation of the proliferative index in biopsy samples of dysplastic laryngeal mucosa is potentially useful for predicting the progression toward carcinoma.

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Renal oncocytoma, conventional RCC (granular cell type) and chromophobe RCC have different prognosis. Sometimes differentiation between them is difficult in HandE slides. In a 5-year study of 128 renal tumors, we selected 76 cases [30 conventional RCC (CRCC), 16 papillary RCC, 21 chromophobe RCC (ChRCC), 8 oncocytoma, 1 collecting duct carcinoma (cdc)] and staining with Hale's colloidal iron, CK7, CK8, CK18, CK19, CK20, Vimentin, EMA, CD10 and RCC marker were done. No significant difference was seen between renal tumor subtypes with CK8, CK18, CK19, CK20 and EMA. The most useful markers were Vimentin, CK7, CD10, RCC marker and Hale's colloidal iron. Hale's colloidal iron staining with diffuse reticular fine cytoplasmic pattern was present in ChRCCs, but was absent in other subtypes and oncocytomas. Vimentin, CK7, CD10, RCC marker and Hale's colloidal iron can be used for the differential diagnosis of problematic epithelial tumors of kidney (CRCC, ChRCC and oncocytoma) - i.e. ChRCC: Vimentin, CD10 and RCC marker - negative, CK7 - positive and positive diffuse fine reticular cytoplasmic pattern of Hale's colloidal iron; oncocytoma: Vimentin, CK7, RCC marker and CD10 - negative and Hale's colloidal iron - negative; CRCC: CK7 - negative, Vimentin, CD10 and RCC marker - positive and Hale's colloidal iron - negative.

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